sofia kovalevskaya

Sofia Kovalevskaya was the middle child of Vasily Korvin-Krukovsky, an artillery general, and Yelizaveta Shubert, both well-educated members of the Russian nobility. Sofia was educated by tutors and governesses first at Polibino, the Krukovsky family country estate, near Pskov, then in St. Petersburg. She joined her family's social circle which included Dostoevsky (who even proposed to her elder sister Anna, but was rejected).

Sofia was attracted to mathematics at a very young age. Her uncle Pyotr Krukovsky was not the brightest or most educated man, but he had a passion for mathematics and told Sofia about squaring a circle and asymptotes, even before she was old enough to know what these words meant.

When Sofia was 11 years old, the walls of her nursery were temporarily (for a shortage of wallpaper) papered with pages of Ostrogradsky's lecture notes on differential and integral analysis from her father's university days. She noticed that certain things on the sheets she had heard mentioned by her uncle.

Fascination with maths

It was under the family's tutor Josef Malevich that Sofia undertook her first proper study of mathematics, and she says that it was as his pupil that she began to feel an attraction for mathematics so intense that she started to neglect other studies.

Sofia’s father decided to put a stop to her math lessons, but she borrowed a copy of Bourdeu's Algebra, which she read at night when the rest of the household was asleep. A year later a neighbour, Professor Tyrtov, presented her family with a physics textbook which he had written, and Sofia attempted to read it. 

She did not understand the trigonometric formulae and attempted to explain them herself. Tyrtov realised that in her working with the concept of sine, she had used the same method by which it had developed historically. Tyrtov argued with Sofia's father that she should be encouraged to study mathematics further but it was several years later that he permitted Sofia to take private lessons.

Marriage and family life

Sofia was forced to marry so that she could go abroad to enter higher education, as Russian universities in the 19th century were closed to women. Her father would not allow her to leave home to study at a university, and women in Russia could not live apart from their families without the written permission of their father or husband. 

Meanwhile, Sofia and her elder sister Anna were part of an active young intelligentsia, who believed in the power of education to hasten a peaceful revolution of the tsarist social structure that would improve human nature, and to provide equal rights for women. So in 1868 the two sisters arranged fictitious marriages to radical compatriots. 

Sofia married Vladimir Kovalevsky, a promising young paleontologist. This marriage caused problems for Sofia and, throughout its 15 years, it was a source of intermittent sorrow, exasperation and tension. Her concentration was broken by her frequent quarrels and misunderstandings with her husband.

University studies in Europe

In 1869 Sofia traveled to Heidelberg to study mathematics and the natural sciences, only to discover that women could not matriculate at the university. Eventually she persuaded the university authorities to allow her to attend lectures unofficially, provided that she obtains the permission of each of her lecturers. 

Sofia studied there successfully for three semesters and, according to the memoirs of a fellow student, immediately attracted the attention of her teachers with her mathematical ability. Professor Königsberger, the eminent chemist Kirchhoff, and all of the other professors were ecstatic over their gifted student and spoke about her as an extraordinary phenomenon.

In 1871 Kovalevskaya moved to Berlin to study with Weierstrass, Königsberger's teacher. Despite the efforts of Weierstrass and his colleagues, she was not permitted to attend courses at the university. Ironically this actually helped her since over the next four years Weierstrass tutored her privately. 

Doctorate degree

By the spring of 1874, Kovalevskaya had completed three papers. Weierstrass deemed each of these worthy of a doctorate. The three papers were on partial differential equations, Abelian integrals and Saturn's Rings. The first of these is a remarkable contribution which was published in Crelle's Journal in 1875. The paper on the reduction of Abelian integrals to simpler elliptic integrals is of less importance, but it consisted of a skilled series of manipulations which showed her complete command of Weierstrass's theory.

In 1874 Kovalevskaya was granted her doctorate, summa cum laude, from Göttingen University in Germany. Despite this doctorate and letters of strong recommendation from Weierstrass, Kovalevskaya was unable to obtain an academic position. This was for a combination of reasons, but her gender was the major handicap.

https://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/science-and-technology/sofia-kovalevskaya/

Afghanistan

On December 11, 1979, a bomb exploded near the Soviet UN mission in New York – a provocative act designed by the American secret services on the eve of the surge of Soviet military troops into Afghanistan.

On September 16, 1978, the pro-Soviet Afghan leader Nur Mohammad Taraki was overthrown following the coup d’etat and replaced by the new leader, Hafizullah Amin.

In several months Afghanistan had gone through all the stages any socialist state would go through, as all lands were confiscated and all private land was put into the collective agricultural units and this reflected negatively on the living standards of the population.

The Soviet authorities were outraged by the fact that the overthrow had taken place without their knowledge. Neither Leonid Brezhnev, then-leader of the Soviet Union, nor Yury Andropov, the KGB head, or Andrey Gromyko, the Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs were aware of it. Amin managed to win over the top officials of the country, and, Brezhnev could not but acknowledge Amin on his new post by sending him a congratulatory telegram.

However, the Soviet authorities got worried over nothing, as Amin had decided to resume their adherence to the Soviet Union, as all the multiple Soviet military and civil advisers had always been lending huge support and served as true protection against the menace from the North. Amin was the first one to suggest introduction of the Soviet troops into the country to secure his position and control the Pakistani border solely by means of his own forces.

The Soviet diplomatic mission used every effort it could to make sure the Afghan leader abstained from bringing in troops, as the Soviet government was reluctant to embark on such a perilous venture.

However, after the Camp David peace treaty between Egypt and Israel had been signed by the countries’ leaders on March 26 of 1979 in Washington DC, the Soviet positions in the Middle East were seriously undermined.

Besides, the Justice Party of Süleyman Demirel of Turkey, which took over in November of 1979, allowed Americans to dislocate several flight squadrons in the areas in the proximity of the Iranian and Soviet borders. In December of 1979, a meeting between American authorities and then British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher collaboratively decided – against the will of the Soviet Union – to deploy the new nuclear-guided weapon systems in Europe, all aiming toward the Soviet Union. All such events seriously threatened the Soviet Union’s position on the international arena, which demanded action on the part of the Soviet Union.

Extensive participation in the life of Afghanistan was a serious item on the Soviet budget. Besides, none of the Soviet leaders wanted to resort to military force. While the Soviet authorities were debating whether to bring in troops into Afghanistan or try and settle the tension peacefully (which they preferred) the American secret services performed two provocative acts in a row.

On December 11, a bomb detonated right by the Soviet UN mission in New York, and in a week, an office of the Soviet airline Aeroflot blew up in Munich, Germany. There were no victims recorded in both accidents. As a result, the decision to introduce the troops to Afghanistan was made on December 12, 1979.

Leonid Melamed

Leonid Melamed, a Russian businessman, scientist and top executive of large companies, was born in Leningrad on 21 June 1961. He started his career as a mechanic-assembly worker at the October Production Association in 1980. He served in the army in 1981-1983, and after demobilization, entered the Novosibirsk Electrotechnical Institute (NETI) where he majored in radio engineering. Graduating in 1987, Melamed chose a career in science and began working as a junior research assistant at NETI. In 1991 he was appointed Rector Assistant Responsible for Commercial Matters. That’s when Melamed’s financial talents were revealed.

In March 1992 Leonid Melamed became one of the founders of the A’lemar Investment Group. Over the next five years he headed a number of large commercial enterprises, but still found time to continue his education and earned his Ph.D. in economics in 1996.

In October 1998 Leonid Melamed was appointed Director General of the federal state unitary enterprise Concern for the Production of Electrical and Thermal Energy at Nuclear Power Plants (Rosenergoatom Concern), which had exercised centralized state control over nine out of the ten nuclear power plants in Russia. In January 2000 Melamed became the First Deputy Chairman of the Board of RAO UES of Russia (The Unified Energy System), the company that provided 70% of electricity generation and about one-third of heat delivery in Russia and controlled 72% of generating capacities and 96% of the total length of Russia’s trunk transmission lines. Leonid Melamed was a close associate of Anatoly Chubais and participated in the elaboration of the Russian power industry reform. The goal of the reform was to create stimulus to increase the efficiency of power companies and provide opportunities to attract more investment to the sector. Anatoly Chubais claimed Leonid Melamed ranged among the most influential and talented financiers of Russia.

In June 2004 Melamed left the position of First Deputy Chairman of the Board of RAO UES of Russia on his own initiative. He remained friends with Chubais, but preferred working as Director General of the A’lemar Investment Group. In 2007 Finance magazine estimated Melamed’s fortune at 90 million US dollars, putting him at number 490 on the list of the 500 wealthiest Russians.

Commonwealth of independent State

On This Day 8 December:

On December 8, 1991, the USSR became history when the Soviet leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus concluded an agreement on the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the establishment of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

The leaders of the three founding states – President of RSFSR (Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) Boris Yeltsin, Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine and Stanislav Shushkevich of Belarus – met at a government retreat in Belavezha outside of Brest in Belarus to sign the so-called Belavezha Accords.

The document stated that the USSR ceased to exist as a subject of international law and geopolitical reality. However, based upon the historical community of peoples, relations between them, given the bilateral treaties, the desire for a democratic rule of law, the intention to develop their relations based upon mutual recognition and respect for state sovereignty, the parties agreed on the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

The CIS was a free association of former Soviet republics, with common defense forces and a common economic front. Its charter stated that all fifteen members were sovereign, independent nations, meaning they no longer regarded themselves as part of the Soviet Union (established in 1922).

In the end, the dissolution of the USSR and establishment of the CIS was formally endorsed on December 21, 1991, in Almaty, as leaders of Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine signed the Protocol to the Agreement on the Establishment of the CIS.

The Soviet government had previously recognized the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania on September 6, 1991 and the three Baltic nations, as well as Georgia, chose not to join the CIS (Georgia joined two years later, in December 1993).

Article cite on Russiapedia.rt.com